Chapter 6: Colonialism ~ Colonization Practices of Indian Act ~ Indian Residential Schools ~ Genocide

Introduction

At this stage in our learning journey, we’ve been introduced to Indigenous peoples, their worldviews, cultures, histories, and tragic trajectories brought about by ‘colonialism’. During the second half of this course, now that you have a basic yet solid understanding, we shift gears to have you engage with the upcoming material, readings, viewings, lectures, and independent research for your assignments. It will be a time for serious reflection and answering a fundamental question: why?

• Why has this happened?
• Why has colonialism been such a destructive force?
• Why does it take so long to resolve or reconcile our past?
• Why are there still instances of on-going ‘colonization’?

The ‘why’ question is a powerful one as asking why requires critical analysis, reflection, understanding, and thoughtful ordering of ideas before answering.  When you are preparing your assignments, always keep ‘why’ questions close at hand. They will strengthen your understanding and help you ‘think things through’.

There will be many terms and concepts yet to master; but, let us look at several that need addressing before going to much further.

Topics at a Glance

• Mastering Terminology
• Frideres’ Overview of History of Indigenous Peoples in Canada
• Colonization Practices and the Indian Act of 1876
• Reserve System
• Indian Residential Schools (including Vowel’s Chapter 20)
• Sixties Scoop & Inuit Relocation (including Vowel’s Chapters 21 & 22)
• Broken Promises, Racism, and Genocide

Mastering Terminology 

I would like to take a few minutes to define the many terms that have appeared already in this text; but, will also be discussed in this chapter and beyond. In a way, this review will serve to provide specific guidance relating to these terms and critical concepts about Indigenous and non-Indigenous relations. Following the definitions, we, myself included, can begin mastery of them.

I turn to a very important source for several of these definitions. The source is the Lexicon of Terminology used by the 2018 National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls. I believe that this lexicon is an important source as the work of the National Inquiry drew heavily from other important works including the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. The lexicon also represents another important perspective, that being, from an Indigenous women’s perspective. Their perspective more than any other must be at the forefront given that colonialism has had its most profound impact on women. We will take some time to examine the work of the National Inquiry later in the course.

Colonialism

“Colonialism is the attempted or actual imposition of policies, laws, mores, economies, cultures or systems and institutions put in place by settler governments to support and continue the occupation of Indigenous territories, the subjugation of Indigenous Nations, and the resulting internalized and externalized thought patterns that support this occupation and subjugation.”

Colonization

“Colonialism is not to be confused with colonization. Colonialism is the ideology advocating colonization. Colonization generally refers to the process by which Europeans invaded and occupied Indigenous national territories.

Decolonization / Decolonized / Decolonizing

“Decolonization” is a social and political process aimed at resisting and undoing the multi-faceted impacts of colonization and re-establishing strong contemporary Indigenous Nations and institutions based on traditional values, philosophies and knowledge systems.

It is the meaningful and active resistance to forces of colonialism that perpetuate the subjugation and/or exploitation of Indigenous minds, bodies and lands. It requires individuals to consciously and critically question the legitimacy of the colonizer and reflect on the ways we have been influenced by colonialism.

According to Margaret Kovach, the purpose of decolonization is to create space in everyday life, research, academia, and society for an Indigenous perspective without it being neglected, shunted aside, mocked or dismissed (Kovach, 2009, pp75-93). Note: The term “decolonizing” is preferred over “decolonization” or “decolonized” to demonstrate that the process is ongoing.

Intergenerational trauma

Intergenerational trauma is transmission of the effects of trauma across generations, affecting the children and grandchildren of those initially victimized. This includes the transmission of historical oppression and colonization that continues to impact the health and well-being of Indigenous peoples today.

Racism

Racism is a social construct that has social, political and economic consequences. Racism is an ideology that directly or indirectly asserts that one group is inherently superior to others, that a person’s social and moral traits are predetermined by their biological characteristics. According to the Ontario Human Rights Commission, racism can be openly displayed in racial jokes and slurs or hate crimes, and it can also be more deeply rooted in attitudes, values and stereotypical beliefs. In some cases, these are unconsciously held and have become deeply embedded in systems and institutions that have evolved over time. Racism operates at a number of levels, including individual, systemic and societal.

The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination defines racial discrimination or racism as any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment, or exercise, on equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.

Reconciliation

Reconciliation means different things to different people, communities, institutions and organizations. In the context of residential schools, “reconciliation” is about coming to terms with events of the past in a manner that overcomes conflict and establishes a respectful and healthy relationship between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people moving forward.

Reconciliation is a Western concept that describes a process of bringing one’s spirit to a place of peace. Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines reconciliation as “the act of causing two people or groups to become friendly again after an argument or disagreement.”

In its simplest definition,” reconciliation” is the re-establishment of a conciliatory state. However, many Indigenous peoples assert that this state has never existed between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Peoples.

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission mandate describes reconciliation as “an ongoing individual and collective process, [which] will require commitment from all those affected including First Nations, Inuit and Métis former Indian Research School students their families, communities, religions entities, former school employees, government and the people of Canada.” (TRC Final Report summary, p. 17.).

In the TRC Final Report, the Commission defined reconciliation as “an ongoing process of establishing and maintaining respectful relationships,” and identified the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples as the appropriate framework for reconciliation that flows from and upholds the principle of Indigenous self-determination. In this way, the TRC expanded the scope of reconciliation beyond residential schools to call for a fundamental restructuring of the institutions, systems and structures of colonialism with across all levels of Canadian society and placed particular emphasis on the role of Indigenous Peoples in the reconciliation process:

“A critical part of this process involves repairing damaged trust by making apologies, providing individual and collective reparations, and following through with concrete actions that demonstrate real societal change. Establishing respectful relationships also requires the revitalization of Indigenous law and legal traditions. It is important that all Canadians understand how traditional First Nations, Inuit, and Metis approaches to resolving conflict, repairing harm, and restoring relationships can inform the reconciliation process…These traditions and practices are the foundation of Indigenous law; they contain wisdom and practical guidance for moving towards reconciliation across this land” (TRC Final Report, Vol. 6., pp. 11-12).

The TRC concluded that:

“Although the Commission has been a catalyst for deepening our national awareness of the meaning and potential of reconciliation, it will take many heads, hands, and hearts, working together, at all levels of society to maintain the momentum in the years ahead. It will also take sustained political will and concerted material resources… Canadians have much to gain from listening to the voices, experiences, and wisdom of Survivors, Elders, and Traditional Knowledge Keepers—and much more to learn about reconciliation. Aboriginal peoples have an important contribution to make to reconciliation. Their knowledge systems, oral histories, laws, and connections to the land have vitally informed the reconciliation process to date, and are essential to its ongoing progress.” (TRC Final Report, Vol. 6, p. 4) The Commission emphasized that Indigenous Peoples are not solely victims of violence, but holders of Treaty, constitutional and human rights that must be upheld. In the TRC’s view, Reconciliation involves truth telling that ’restores the human dignity of victims of violence and calls governments and citizens to account. Without truth, justice is not served, healing cannot happen and there can be no genuine reconciliation between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal peoples in Canada.’ Reconciliation is not about “closing a sad chapter of Canada’s past, but about opening new healing pathways of reconciliation that are forged in truth and justice” (TRC Final Report, Vol. 6, p. 7).

Figure 25: Bentwood Box, National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation, University of Manitoba

Residential school system

In Canada, the Residential school system was a network of boarding schools for Indigenous students administered by the Canadian government and Christian churches.

Initiated in the 1880s, these schools operated until the 1990s, with the last school closing in 1996. Residential Schools removed Indigenous children from their homes, families, and communities, with a purpose of educating and assimilating Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture.

Residential Schools generally operated on a half-day system in which students divided their time between classroom and working, learning skills that they were told would allow them to earn a living once they left the schools. Often, however, this work had little to do with providing a ski base; rather, Indigenous labour helped to run these schools in the most inexpensive manner possible.

At the schools, students were isolated, and because the schools were segregated by gender, many students were separated from some of their siblings. Most students’ hair was cut short and they were stripped of any trappings of Indigenous culture. They were not allowed to wear their own clothes nor were they allowed to speak their first language. Schools were chronically overcrowded and food was poor. Children were underfed and malnourished, making them vulnerable to illness, including tuberculosis and influenza. Abuses of all types were prevalent, including high rates of sexual abuse.

It is estimated that over 150,000 First Nation, Métis, and Inuit children attended Residential Schools. In recent years, former students have pressed for recognition of abuses suffered at Residential Schools. This resulted in the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement in 2007, a formal apology from Prime Minister Stephen Harper in 2008, and the creation of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in 2008.

s. 35, Constitution Act, 1982

In 1982, the Canadian government repatriated the Constitution and formally entrenched existing Aboriginal and Treaty rights in Canadian law. These rights now receive legal protection under Section 35. Existing Aboriginal land rights can no longer be extinguished without the consent of those Aboriginal Peoples holding interests in those lands.

Section 35 of the Constitution states: (1) The existing aboriginal and treaty rights of the aboriginal peoples of Canada are hereby recognized and affirmed. (2) In this Act, “aboriginal peoples of Canada” includes the Indian, Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada. (3) For greater certainty, in subsection (1) “treaty rights” includes rights that now exist by way of land claims agreements or may be so acquired. (4) Notwithstanding any other provision of this Act, the aboriginal and treaty rights referred to in subsection (1) are guaranteed equally to male and female persons.

Settler colonialism

Settler colonialism is a form of colonialism that functions through the replacement of Indigenous populations with an invasive settler society that over time develops a distinctive identity and sovereignty.

Settler colonialism, like colonialism, is an ideology or structure, not an event. Settler colonialism persists in the ongoing elimination of Indigenous populations and the assertion of state sovereignty over Indigenous Peoples and lands. Settler colonialism refers to settler colonizers who come to new lands with the intent to permanently occupy and assert authority over Indigenous lands.

When settling, an imperial power oversees the immigration of settlers who consent, Settler colonialism is a form of colonialism that functions through the replacement of Indigenous populations with an invasive settler society that over time develops a distinctive identity and sovereignty. Settler colonialism, like colonialism, is an ideology or structure, not an event.

Settler colonialism persists in the ongoing elimination of Indigenous populations and the assertion of state sovereignty over Indigenous Peoples and lands. Settler colonialism refers to settler colonizers who come to new lands with the intent to permanently occupy and assert authority over Indigenous lands. When settling, an imperial power oversees the immigration of settlers who consent, government officials. These agencies wielded (and in some cases, continue to hold) power over Indigenous Peoples, including the ability to apprehend children, to prevent people from leaving official “reserve” lands (or conversely, to expel individuals or families from reserved territories), to control employment, and even to summarily direct police or military forces against Indigenous people. See: Colonialism

Seven Sacred Teachings

The Seven Sacred Teachings is a term used by many, but not all, Indigenous peoples in what is now referred to as Canada. The term refers to the foundational concepts by which we should all live our lives in the best interest of ourselves, our families, our communities, and all living things. The Seven Sacred Teachings are: love, honesty, courage, wisdom, humility, truth, and respect.

Please keep these terms in mind going forward. The author did not include all the terms from the Lexicon. There are several there that could be useful in your assignments such as resistance / resurgence.

Frideres’ Overview of History of Indigenous Peoples in Canada

There was a considerable amount of information that was presented in Frideres’ overview respecting the history of Indigenous Peoples in Canada. Can you recall some of the more prominent acts, decrees, policies, and sanctions levied against Indigenous peoples? Let’s list the more impactful.

If you said, reserve system, withholding the right to vote, Indian Residential School system, banning cultural practices with punishment of imprisonment if participating in these activities, you have highlighted some of the most insidious forms of colonization with the goal to totally assimilate Indigenous peoples, and their respective cultures, into the Dominion of Canada.

By way of further historical context, the following highlights years leading up to the infamous Indian Act of 1876:

“The 1850 Act for the Better Protection of the Lands and Property of the Indians in Lower Canada was one of the first pieces of legislation that included a set of requirements for a person to be considered a legal Indian — a precursor to the concept of “status.” These requirements were based on blood, and essentially said that people “shall be considered as Indians” if they were of “Indian blood” and were members of a “Body or Tribe of Indians.” All descendants of such people were considered to be Indian. So too were non-Indians who “intermarried with such Indians,” people whose parents (one or both) would have been considered Indians, and “all persons adopted in infancy by any such Indians.

The Acts commonly known as the Gradual Civilization Act of 1857 and the Gradual Enfranchisement Act of 1869 were primarily aimed at removing any special distinction or rights of First Nations peoples in order to assimilate them into the larger settler population. This was initially meant to be accomplished by the Gradual Civilization Act through voluntary enfranchisement (i.e., a First Nations person would give up their status in exchange for land and the right to vote), but only one person voluntarily enfranchised. As a result, the government then began unilaterally enfranchising First Nations people.

A number of Indigenous groups made treaties— in particular the first five Numbered Treaties — with Canadian governments before the 1876 passing of the Indian Act” (The Canadian Encyclopedia, 2023).

Colonization Practices and the Indian Act of 1876

We will now look at some of these governmental policies all under the over-arching and controlling Indian Act of 1876 (please make sure to view this link). While the Indian Act may have been seen by those in power as merely assisting to integrate (assimilate) Indigenous peoples into the dominant Euro-western culture, Indigenous peoples weren’t long in recognizing these colonization practices as a means to control every aspect of their lives. Nothing about it was ‘Creator-given’ nor resembled their values, cultures, governance structures, economies, protocols, and relationships with other peoples and all their relations.

The list of practices is extensive. However, the most impactful are the ones that I present below. You may uncover other practices such as the ones I mentioned earlier such as withholding Indigenous peoples right to vote. This practice was not only a very demeaning and clear message around government’s view of Indigenous peoples generally as wards of the state, and specifically to their rights as citizens; but to control Indigenous peoples position of inferiority within society. Banning cultural practices is another form of aggressive assimilative policies, which is a direct method to strip Indigenous peoples of their culture. Neither of these practices could be withstand Court challenges and were quickly reversed.

We will now examine the reserve system, Indian Residential schools, the ‘Sixties Scoop’, and Inuit Relocation before looking at the broader impacts of broken promises, racism and genocide.

Reserve System (Canada and the United States)

I present a visual display with an accompanying story about one reserve I visited in 2012 (see Figure 24).

Figure 24: Siksika First Nation, Alberta, Canada

• Varis Presentation on Siksika First Nation, Alberta, Canada

It is important to make a distinction between the Crown owned land where Indigenous peoples in Canada were ‘assigned’ to live, known as reserves; whereas, they are known as reservations in the United States. The next video presents what Indigenous people think of these places, whether a reserve or a reservation, through one word descriptions. A forewarning, these are very powerful descriptions.

• Reservation | Native Americans | One Word

Indian Residential Schools

• Residential Schools in Canada: A Timeline

Key Messages from Vowel (Chapter 20: Monster: The Residential-School Legacy)

1. Statistics (150 years of operation, 150,000 children attended, 6000 children (at least) who died while in the system…pp. 171)
2. Historic trauma transmission – “cumulative emotional and psychological wounding across generations” (pp.172)
3. It was legal, acceptable and happened (pp. 172)
4. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: 2008-2015 (pp. 172)
5. How did you not know this? (pp. 173)
6. Canada’s First Public Apology: 2008 (pp. 173 and, as we know, Roman Catholic Church only offered apology in 2022 (Varis)
7. TRC (2015): “The establishment and operation of residential schools were a central element of this policy, which can best be described as “cultural genocide.” (pp. 173)
8. TRC Calls to Action (pp. 174)
9. Education for Reconciliation: “Education is key to reconciliation.” University of Winnipeg and Lakehead University (2016-2017) introduced the mandatory course. (pp. 176)
10. K-12 Education on Indigenous peoples’ shows that no mandatory courses, only six provinces offer elective Indigenous Studies courses. (pp. 177)

• Stolen Children | Residential School survivors speak
• Sisters & Brothers
• E’nikaq Nsitunaq / I Lost My Talk

Additional Indian Residential School Documentary

Crimes against children at residential school: The truth about St. Anne’s – The Fifth Estate

Sixties Scoop

Key Messages from Vowel (Chapter 21: Our Stolen Generations: The Sixties and Millennial Scoops)

1. Sixties or Millennial Scoop also be referred to Stolen or Lost Generations (pp. 181)
2. Similar child welfare and protection policies were also implemented in Australia with unfavourable results (pp. 181)
3. Adoption as cultural annihilation. Statistics show that at least 11,132 status-Indian children removed from home between 1960-1990. Estimates show about 20,000 Metis and non-status were placed in care. With 70-90 percent placed in non-Indigenous homes (pp. 182)
4. One Manitoba Judge appointed to an inquiry into the child welfare system in 1982 commented, “The miracle is that there were not more children lost in the system run by many well-intentioned people. The road to hell was paved with good intentions, and the child welfare system was the paving contractor.” (pp.  183)
5. By 2002, 22,500 Indigenous children in foster care. Indigenous children are six to eight times more likely than non-Indigenous children to end up in care. (pp. 183)
6. This over-representation…. “is not rooted in their indigenous race, culture and ethnicity. It’s rooted in the same colonial history and resultant poverty, social and community disorganization….” (pp. 183)
7. Systemic discrimination and underfunding, and Federal Court ruling of 2012 (pp. 184), and 2021 federal government decision not to appeal and settle law-suit in 2021. (Varis)
8. Millennial scoop and continuation of over-representation, e.g.: Indigenous children represent 21 percent of children in Manitoba; but 84 percent of children in permanent care. (pp. 184)
9. Statistics tell us one thing; but, it becomes evident that poverty is at root, and compounded by intergenerational trauma and poor structural conditions. (pp. 185-187)
10. Legacy of 100 years of cultural abuse (pp. 187)

• Separating children from parents: The Sixties Scoop in Canada

While the over-representation of Indigenous children in the child welfare system raged on for decades, there was one Indigenous warrior, who took on the government to bring accountability to this tragic situation. The work of Dr. Cindy Blackstock, Executive Director of First Nations Child & Family Caring Society of Canada, Associate Professor & Director of FNCARES (First Nations Children’s Action Research and Education Service) at University of Alberta and Professor in McGill’s School of Social Work, through the establishment of Jordan’s Principle and a recent Federal Court $23B First Nations child-welfare settlement is a story that we will revisit in our chapter on Indigenous peoples in the 21st Century.

Inuit Relocation

As mentioned earlier in the text, I have had the opportunity to work in the North in the territories of the Inuit. I’ve been fascinated with the landscape, its peoples, and the adaptability that is necessary to live in the northern reaches of Turtle Island (see Figure 25).

Figure 25: Inuit Mother and Child, Iqaluit, Nunavut.

Sadly, the Inuit are now are at the frontlines of the global climate emergency. According to the Canadian Climate Institute, “The North is warming three times faster than the global average. The impacts of this warming will be profound and extreme. These impacts are compounded because colonial policies and historic underinvestment have left Northern infrastructure in poor condition, uniquely vulnerable to climate change. This will have devastating consequences for Northerners, disrupting supply chains and putting essential services like health care at risk. Lives, livelihoods, and cultural practices are also threatened by permafrost thaw and a changing environment” (Canadian Climate Change, 2024).

Let us look back in time now, and the chapter topic that author Chelsea Vowel wrote about in her text, Indigenous Writes: A Guide to First Nations, Métis, & Inuit Issues in Canada.

Key Messages from Vowel (Chapter 22: Human Flagpoles: Inuit Relocation)

1. Another apology by Federal government, this time to the Inuit for the relocation of families from Inukjuak and Pond inlet to Grise Fiord and Resolute Bay during the 1950s. (pp. 191)
2. Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP) pointed this out in its 1996 report, and included such impacts as a) severing Aboriginal people’s relationship to the land and environment and weakening cultural bonds; b) a loss of economic self-sufficiency, including, in some cases, increased dependence on government transfer payments, c) a decline in standards of health, and d) changes in social and political relations in the relocated population. (pp. 191)
3. Federal government’s approach to the Inuit of the North was different than for First Nations, it was characterized by unwillingness to take responsibility, although Supreme Court ruling of 1938 affirmed otherwise. (pp. 186) Rather a disinterest and neglect approach. (Varis)
4. Inuit relocations between 1930s and 1950s saw a disruption to lives and decisions made with no consultation. (pp. 193)
5. Qimmiijaqtauniq: The Dog Slaughter actions by authorities (RCMP) in the 1950s to 1970s saw Inuit sled dogs killed en masse. While under the guise of public health and safety, it coincided with relocations, removal of Inuit children from their families for extended periods of time, and destruction of a traditional way of life. (pp. 194)
6. Another goal of the relocation was to assert Canadian sovereignty in the High Arctic. (pp. 203)
7. Vowel concludes, “Perhaps the only way relocation will cease to be offered as a solution to the ‘Indian and Inuit problem’ is if non-Indigenous Canadians learn the history and recognize that abandoning a failed tactic is in the best interest of all peoples living in this country.” (pp. 204)

I present two videos below, which speak directly to forced Inuit relocation. The first one was created by IKERAS Assistant Professor Enooyaq (Enoo) Sudlovenick and produced by Wrong Horse Productions. Enoo is an Inuk marine biologist and researcher. She was a recipient of the 2021 Weston Family Awards in Northern Research for her research into the health of marine animals of the Arctic. Soon to be Dr. Sudlovenick (University of Manitoba, 2024) explains her real life connection to the tragedy of forced Inuit relocation. Her great-grandfather on her mother’s side was a German whaler while her other maternal ancestors were North Baffin Inuit in an area ranging from modern-day Pond Inlet to Somerset Island and as far as Taloyoak on the mainland. Her father’s ancestors were Inuit from Inukjuaq in Nunavik. She grew up in Iqaluit and Pond Inlet on Baffin Island, and as a child ventured with her parents into the waters of Nunavut to examine marine life including sea angels, northern krill, and eels.

Enoo prepared this video for her IKE 1040 class, and has openly shared it with Faculty. It is such as an invaluable resource to accompany the chapter in Vowel (2016); and, most importantly, it is her story and that of her family.

• IKE1040 Forced Relocation Video by Assistant Professor, Enooyak Sudlovenick

The second video is titled, Ausuittuq, produced by the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, and also has a further story about forced relocation. Larry Audlaluk explains the political context of the High Arctic relocation and the creation of Ausuittuq (Grise Fiord), Nunavut.

• Ausuittuq – Larry Audlaluk

The chapter now leads to us to something that should be very obvious by now – Indigenous and non-Indigenous relations has a long history of broken promises, racism, and genocide.

Broken Promises, Racism, and Genocide

The following videos present on some very impactful systemic issues, and will give rise to many reflections, discussion points, and information that will illuminate further on the complex and sometimes unfathomable to understand state of Indigenous and non-Indigenous relations in Canada.

• Canadians have been breaking their promises to Indigenous people
• Confronting racism in Canada on National Indigenous Peoples Day
• How Canada changed the definition of genocide while engaging in crimes against Indigenous Peoples

Key Terms and Concepts from Chapter

• Self-directed

Special Topics of Interest

Full Story: I Lost my Talk Tribute

Where are the Children? Healing the Legacy of Residential Schools 

Cultural Competency Supplemental Tutorials

Mi’kmaq Language Websites

Important Readings / Viewings for Next Class

• Self-directed